Assessing pharmacy-based naloxone access using an innovative purchase trial methodology

Abstract

Objectives: Massachusetts was among the first states to allow standing orders to facilitate pharmacy-based naloxone purchases and reduce opioid overdose deaths. We conducted a unique purchase trial to establish a valid measure of standing order naloxone in Massachusetts, using purchasers from 2 high priority populations to determine whether naloxone is less accessible to those who use illicit opioids than other potential purchasers.

Design: Purchase trial.

Setting and participants: The study used a stratified random sample of 200 chain and independent retail pharmacies across Massachusetts. Each pharmacy underwent 2 purchase attempts-1 by a person who used illicit opioids (PWUIO) and 1 by a potential bystander who did not use illicit opioids but had a relationship with someone at risk of opioid overdose.

Outcome measure: Successful or unsuccessful naloxone purchase attempt.

Results: Overall, 322 of 397 purchase attempts (81%) were successful, with no statistically significant difference between PWUIO and bystanders (P = 0.221). Most purchases (93%) resulted in the acquisition of single-step nasal naloxone (Narcan; median cost $133.38). Forty percent of the purchases included state-mandated verbal counseling, and PWUIO were significantly less likely to receive counseling than bystanders (30% vs. 51%, P < 0.001). Common reasons for failed purchase were not stocking naloxone (47%), price > $150 (25%), and requiring a prescription (15%). Chain pharmacies were significantly more likely to sell naloxone than independent pharmacies (86% vs. 53%, P < 0.001).

Conclusion: We documented high levels of naloxone access for both PWUIO and bystanders, suggesting Massachusetts could serve as a model for states seeking to improve pharmacy-based naloxone access. Additional implementation efforts should focus on expanding availability at independent pharmacies and supporting pharmacies in proactively offering naloxone to PWUIO and other high-risk individuals.